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Data review: ethnographic and archaeological evidence on violent deaths

What quantitative data is there about violent deaths in non-state societies?

This data review presents quantitative information on violent deaths based on archaeological and ethnographic studies.

Homicide rates for modern times are routinely published by statistical offices or other state agencies, and research institutes publish reliable data on war deaths.

For the study of lethal violence in non-state societies we have generally two different sources of information: for the more recent past (since the late 19th century) ethnographic evidence is abundant.

For the more distant past, we have information on the prevalence of violence from archeologists who have studied violence in past societies through skeletal remains at archeological sites.

We present and describe data from both archaeological and ethnographic studies below.

Importantly, this is not all the information we have on violence in different societies. Non-quantitative information on violence is abundant, such as in art.

And both types of studies often cannot distinguish between whether a violent death was inflicted by a member of the same group or by another, and therefore is more similar to what we think of today as a homicide or a death from war.

We see that the levels of violence in prehistoric times and in non-state societies differ widely between societies. But on average they tend to be significantly higher than in modern state societies and the world today.

Rate of violent deaths in state and non-state societies

Share of violent deaths in prehistoric, state and non-state societies

Data sources

This section collects all of the ethnographic and archaeological data sources on violent deaths presented above.

Procedures in collecting this data

The starting point for my research was the sample presented by Pinker (2011).1 Pinker does not present the numerical data itself but instead includes two bar charts (Figures 2-2 and 2-3) from which the exact data cannot be discerned. Therefore I looked up all the sources for the data he presents.

The topic of Pinker's book is the decline of violence in humanity's history. That would give him an incentive to cherry-pick data that suits his narrative. For this reason I had contact with several of his critics and asked them for their evidence. After this assessment of Pinker's data, I did not find any reason to assume that he cherry-picked. He included all the data that his sources included.

Through my contact with critics of Pinker's book I was referred to a critique of Pinker's data by Douglas Fry.2 Fry criticizes some of Pinker's data. I checked the original sources for the criticized information, referred to the criticisms and the original sources in my comments and corrected the data when the criticism was justified.

An additional source that I added to my dataset and which was not yet available to Pinker is a study published by Robert Walker and Drew Bailey (published in 2013).3

Main sources

I checked the following sources and collected the data these sources presented. For every information I also included the original source:

Sources for rates of violent deaths in non-state societies

Society: Kato (Cahto) 1840s (California)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 1450

Society: Grand Valley Dani (New Guinea) (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 1000

Society: Piegan (North American Plains)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 1000

Society: Dinka 1928 (N.E. Africa)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 970

Society: Fiji 1860s (Melanesia)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 870

Society: Hewa (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 731

Society: Chippewa 1825-1832 (Minnesota)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 750

Society: Telefolmin 1939-1950 (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 740

Society: Buin (Salomon Is.)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 710

Society: Mtetwa 1806-1814 (S. Africa)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 590

Society: Goilala (from Papua New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 550

Society: Dugum Dani 1961 (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 480

Society: Manga 1949-1956 (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 460

Society: Modoc (California)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 450

Society: Auyana 1924-1949 (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 420

Society: (Hunter-Gatherer) Murngin 20 years (Australia)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 330

Society: Tauade 1900-1946 (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 320

Society: Mae Enga 1900-1950 (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 320

Society: Yanomama 1938-1958 (Brazil)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 290

Society: Yurok (California)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 240

Society: Mohave 1840s (Calif.-Ariz.)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 230

Society: Gebusi 1940-1982 (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 200

Society: Yanomamo 1970-74

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 165.9

Society: (Hunter-Gatherer) Tiwi 1893-1903 (Australia)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 160

Society: Boko Dani 1937-1962 (New Guinea)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 140

Society: Eskimos (central Canadian Arctic)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 100

Society: !Kung Bushmen of the Kalahari

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: (before the establishment of a state authority): 42 // (after the establishment of a state authority): 29

Society: Andamanese 30 years (Indian Ocean)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 20

Sources for rates of violent deaths in state societies

Society: C. Mexico, 1419-1519 (Mesoamerica)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 250

Society: Mexican mestizo village (1961-65)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 251.2

Society: Tepoztlán, Mexico (1922-55)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: ca. 59

Society: Germany 1900-1990

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 160

Society: Russia 1900-1990

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 150

Society: France 1800-1899

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 70

Society: Japan 1900-1990

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 30

Society: World, 20th Century (wars & genocides)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 60

Society: US, 20th century (war deaths)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 3.79

Society: World, 2007 (battle and one-sided violence deaths)

Violent deaths per 100,000 people per year: 0.33

Share of violent deaths in prehistoric societies

Site: Crow Creek, 1325 CE (South Dakota)

Share of Violent Deaths: >60%

Site: Nubia (site 117), 14-12000 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 46%

Site: N. British Columbia (1500 B.C.-A.D. 500)

Share of Violent Deaths: 32.4%

Site: Sarai Nahar Rai, N.India, 3140-2854 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 30%

Site: British Columbia (A.D. 500-1774)

Share of Violent Deaths: 27.6%

Site: British Columbia (30 sites, 5500–334 years before present)

Share of Violent Deaths: 23%

Site: Late prehistoric Indian site of Madisonville, Ohio

Share of Violent Deaths: 22% of adult male skulls had wounds; 8 % of them were fractured

Site: Volos’ke, Ukraine ("Epipalaeolithic”)

Share of Violent Deaths: 22%

Site: Vasiliv’ka III, Ukraine; 11000 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 21%

Site: Nubia: Qadan burials 10,000 B.C.

Share of Violent Deaths: 21.4%

Site: Illinois A.D. 1300

Share of Violent Deaths: 16.3%

Site: Northeast Plains 1325-1650

Share of Violent Deaths: 15%

Site: Denmark: Vedbaek 4100 B.C.

Share of Violent Deaths:13.6%

Site: Ile Teviec, France, 6600 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 12%

Site: Bogebakken, Denmark, 6300-5800 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 12%

Site: S. California: Ven-110 A.D. 100-1100

Share of Violent Deaths: 10%

Site: Brittany 6000 B.C.

Share of Violent Deaths: 8%

Site: Central California, 2415-1773 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 8%

Site: Sweden (Skateholm I), 6100 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 7%

Site: S. California (28 sites), 5500-628 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 6%

Site: Kentucky: 2500-3000 B.C.

Share of Violent Deaths: 5.6%

Site: Central California 1500 B.C.-A.D. 500

Share of Violent Deaths: > 5%

Site: Central California (2 sites), 2240-238 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 4%

Site: Calumnata, Algeria, 8300-7300 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 4%

Site: Nubia (near site 117), 14-12000 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 3%

Site: Algeria: Columnata ca. 6000 B.C.

Share of Violent Deaths:1.7%

Site: Gobero, Niger, 16,000-8,000 years before present

Share of Violent Deaths: 0%

Share of violent deaths in non-state societies

The following statistics refer to the share of violent deaths out of all deaths in a given society.

Society: The Waorani (Auca) of the Ecuadorian Amazon

Share of Violent Deaths: 60 % and 56 %

Society: Blackfoot tribe (Plain Indians)

Share of Violent Deaths: 50% in 1805 - 33% in 1858

Society: Achuar

Share of Violent Deaths: 42%

Society: Arawete

Share of Violent Deaths: 35%

Society: Kayapo

Share of Violent Deaths: 35%

Society: Enga (Papua New Guinea)

Share of Violent Deaths: 34.8% (male population)

Society: Gebusi (Papua New Guinea)

Share of Violent Deaths: 35.2 % (male population) & 29.3 % (female population)

Society: Jivaro Share of Deaths due to Warfare: 32.7%

Society: (Hunter-Gatherer) The Murngin of Arnhem Land

Share of Violent Deaths: 28.6% (male population) & 21% (adult population)

Society: Dani (Highland Papua New Guinea)

Share of Violent Deaths: 28.5 % (male population) & 2.4 % (women population)

Society: Wari

Share of Violent Deaths: 28%

Society: Tribal Montenegro (beginning twentieth century)

Share of Violent Deaths: ca. 25 %

Society: Yanomamo-Shamatari

Share of Violent Deaths: 20.9%

Society: (Hunter-Gatherer) Ayoreo (1920-1979)

Share of Violent Deaths: 20% (all ages)

Society: Mae Enga

Share of Violent Deaths: 18.6%

Society: Xilixana

Share of Violent Deaths: 16%

Society: Dugum Dani

Share of Violent Deaths: 15.5%

Society: Yanomamo

Share of Violent Deaths: 15% (entire population) / 24% (male population) / 7% (female population)

Society: Modoc, Northern California

Share of Violent Deaths: 13%

Society: Huli

Share of Violent Deaths: 13.2%

Society: (Hunter-Gatherer) Casiguran Agta (Philippines)

Share of Violent Deaths:12% were attributed to homicide (In the less violent time period (1962-1977); adult male population). Between 1977 and 1984 the homicide rate is 326 homicides per 100,000 people per year. In this time period, that was described as unusually violent (and which is therefore not quoted in my statistic) 21% of all adult male deaths were due to homicide (see comment).

Society: Anggor

Share of Violent Deaths: 11.9%

Society: Gebusi

Share of Violent Deaths: 8.3%

Society: (Hunter-Gatherer) Hiwi

Share of Violent Deaths: 7,2 % (Hiwi killed by Hiwi in Precontact times); in total 28% of Hiwi died a violent death in Precontact times

3,8% (Hiwi killed by Hiwi in Postcontact times)

Society: Tsimane

Share of Violent Deaths: 6% (adults)

Society: (Hunter-Gatherer) Tiwi

Share of Violent Deaths: 5.75% (entire population; average of arid and non-arid areas) -- 10% (men only) - 5% (entire population - arid areas) - 6,5% (entire population - non-arid areas)

Society: (Hunter-Gatherer) Anbara, N. Australia

Share of Violent Deaths: 4%

Share of violent deaths in state societies

Society: Ancient Mexico

Share of Violent Deaths: 5%

Society: France 19th Century

Share of Violent Deaths: 3%

Society: Western Europe 17th Century

Share of Violent Deaths: 2%

Society: U.S. and Europe 1900-1960

Share of Violent Deaths: less than 1% (Male Deaths only)

Society: World, 2007 (battle and one-sided violence deaths)

Share of Violent Deaths: 0.04%

Endnotes

  1. Pinker (2011) - The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined.

  2. Fry (2013) - Chapter 1: War, Peace, and Human Nature. The Challenge of Scientific Objectivity. In War, Peace, and Human Nature: The Convergence of Evolutionary and Cultural Views. Edited by Douglas Fry. Oxford University Press. New York.

  3. Walker and Bailey (2013) - Body counts in lowland South American violence. In Evolution and Human Behavior, 34, 1, 29--34.

  4. White, M. (2011). The great big book of horrible things. The definitive chronicle of history’s 100 worst atrocities. New York: Norton.

  5. Leland, A., & Oboroceanu, M.-J. 2010. American war and military operations casualties: Lists and statistics.

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Our articles and data visualizations rely on work from many different people and organizations. When citing this article, please also cite the underlying data sources. This article can be cited as:

Max Roser (2013) - “Data review: ethnographic and archaeological evidence on violent deaths” Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: 'https://ourworldindata.org/ethnographic-and-archaeological-evidence-on-violent-deaths' [Online Resource]

BibTeX citation

@article{owid-ethnographic-and-archaeological-evidence-on-violent-deaths,
    author = {Max Roser},
    title = {Data review: ethnographic and archaeological evidence on violent deaths},
    journal = {Our World in Data},
    year = {2013},
    note = {https://ourworldindata.org/ethnographic-and-archaeological-evidence-on-violent-deaths}
}
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